Al-Haram al-Sharif is an ancient expanse situated at the centre of Bait al-Maqdis, the sacred precinct in Jerusalem. Within this enclosure, one can find two prominent structures: Qubbat al-Sakhra (the Dome of the Rock) and al-Masjid al-Qibli. In the Islamic tradition, this compound, known in its entirety as al-Aqsa, holds a position of great significance, being considered the third holiest site after al-Masjid al-Haram in Mecca and al-Masjid al-Nabawi in Madinah. Furthermore, it is noteworthy for being the first of the two Qiblas (‘awlaa al-qiblatayn).
The construction of the Dome of the Rock and the al-Qibli Mosque commenced under the patronage of the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan and was subsequently finalised by his son, al-Walid I, circa 691 CE. This ambitious architectural project took root on an esplanade located at the heart of Jerusalem. The Dome of the Rock stands today as the earliest surviving Islamic monument still retaining its core architectural characteristics.
From its inception and throughout its rich historical journey, the Dome of the Rock has consistently served as a focal point where the heavens meet the earth and where the secular and the sacred seamlessly intertwine. It stands as a silent witness to the inexorable passage of time. The structure of the building bears the weight of historical layers, each inscribed with the presence of rulers, saints, scholars and historical events.
A prevailing belief unites Muslims worldwide in recognising the Dome of the Rock as a commemorative site for the Night Journey (Isra and Mi’raj) of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, wherein he travelled from Mecca to Jerusalem and ascended from the rock to Heaven. It was during this journey that the Prophet ﷺ received the foundational doctrines of the emerging religion from God.
The vast scale and magnificence of Abd al-Malik’s grand Dome have compelled historians to search for motivations that transcend purely religious factors. This scholarly debate is partly attributable to the complex history of the ancient esplanade on which the structure stands, a history that predates the divine revelations received by Prophet Muhammad ﷺ and the arrival of ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab in Jerusalem by many centuries. Additionally, the Dome of the Rock’s architectural layout, as well as the intricate inscriptions that adorn its walls, have raised questions regarding its original purpose, deepening the enigmatic nature of this historical site.
To gain a more comprehensive understanding of the historical significance of the Dome of the Rock and the Masjid al-Aqsa, one must delve into the multifaceted history of Jerusalem in the centuries leading up to the advent of Islam. This history is profoundly entwined with Jerusalem’s status as the city of Jesus (peace be upon him) and its sanctity in the Jewish tradition. Furthermore, the initial phase of the structure’s history should be understood in the context of incorporating past traditions associated with the sanctuary into Islam, while also taking into account the historical context of the time and the ambitions and aspirations of Abd al-Malik and the Umayyad dynasty.
Bayt al-Maqdis in early Muslim sources
Western scholars have debated the origins of traditions that celebrated Jerusalem’s sanctuary in the Islamic tradition. Some suggest that these traditions emerged directly as a result of the extensive construction efforts undertaken by Abd al-Malik and his sons on the Jerusalem site. Others argue that it was precisely due to the pre-existing wealth of sacred traditions in Syria-Palestine that the caliph chose to develop Jerusalem into a prominent pilgrimage destination.
One of the earliest Muslim sources on Jerusalem dates back to the 8th century CE. Muqatil b. Sulayman was a prominent Quranic scholar known for his early commentary (tafsir) on the Quran. His work is recognized as one of the earliest, if not the first, surviving commentaries on the Quran that is still accessible today. Notably, Muqātil ibn Sulaymān is credited with being the first to transmit and incorporate early traditions related to Jerusalem and its sacred esplanade during the period of its construction into his commentary. Muqatil’s commentary provides a chronological account of Islamic perspectives on Jerusalem, linking it to the birth and burial places of pre-Islamic prophets and their proselytisation.
According to his account, Prophet Ibrahim (peace be upon him) migrated to Jerusalem where he received the divine promise of Isaac’s birth. Prophet Musa (peace be upon him) also received a divine command in Jerusalem, where he experienced divine illumination. The city played a role in the repentance and forgiveness of Prophets Dawood and Sulayman (peace be upon them). Muqatil’s narrative includes the ascent of the Ark of the Covenant and the Divine Presence to heaven from Jerusalem, mirroring their descent during David’s time.
The foremost historical source concerning Jerusalem and the Dome of the Rock is al-Wasiti’s Fada’il Bayt al-Muqaddas or Fada’il Bayt al-Maqdis, which translates to ‘Merits/Virtues of Jerusalem’. Within the contents of this source, three recurring themes assume particular significance. Firstly, there is a consistent focus on the framework of Creation’s timeline and its relation to the Day of Judgment. Secondly, the treatise elaborates on the miracles ascribed to Dawood and Sulaiman (peace be upon them), believed to have been witnessed at the site, and their subsequent role in the construction of a Holy House, referred to as Bayt Muqaddas. Lastly it encompasses the account of the Prophet Muhammad’s ﷺ Night Journey from Mecca to Jerusalem.
Cumulatively, these accounts underscore that the esplanade was acknowledged as a sacred location chosen by God for the construction of His Holy House, with the divine task entrusted to Sulaiman. The Rock, central to these narratives, plays multiple significant roles. It is considered a witness (shaheed) and holds a position as the second most sacred place on Earth, following the Kaaba. It’s also seen as the point from which God ‘ascended’ to Heaven after Creation, and is associated with miraculous events witnessed by the Prophets Dawood and Sulayman. It is also believed to be the location where Prophet Muhammad ﷺ led all other prophets acknowledged by Islam in prayer, when he undertook his journey to Jerusalem.
The majority of these traditions, with the notable exception of those associated with Prophet Muhammad’s ﷺ Night Journey, exhibit clear influence from older Biblical and para-Biblical accounts. The sanctity of Jerusalem, after all, represents an inheritance by Islam from both Judaism and Christianity. Moreover, these traditions, each of which possesses a transmission chain leading back to the Companions of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, serve as compelling evidence that Muslims, during the early centuries of Islam possessed a direct and first-hand understanding of the Biblical traditions related to the Holy City and the sacred esplanade. This awareness could potentially shed light on Abd al-Malik’s motivation to erect a monumental structure atop the Dome, emphasising its significance in light of these deeply rooted traditions.
In its earliest history, Jerusalem and the Rock were predominantly associated with Judaic beliefs, which were adopted by the Muslims of that era as a part of the religious heritage to which Islam laid claim. It is essential to recognize that the initial transmitters of these beliefs played a pivotal role not only in acknowledging the sanctity of Jerusalem and the significance of the Rock but also in the process of ‘Islamising’ these traditions and essentially the sanctuary. In this context, the Isra’, or Night Journey, seamlessly integrates into this framework, directly linking the Prophet of Islam to a sacred site and to the earlier religious traditions associated with it. When viewed through this perspective, the extensive building activities at the site, on a monumental scale previously unseen, can also be understood as part of the endeavour to Islamise the city of Jerusalem and assert its significance within the Islamic tradition.
Bayt al-Maqdis in the seventh century
“The holy land, the land of the Gathering and the Resurrection, and the land of the graves of the prophets” Mu’awiya b. Abi Sufyan
When the Muslim army arrived in Jerusalem, they were met with a city meticulously maintained and enshrouded in a deeply entrenched legend. The legend of Jerusalem had evolved over time, first as the sacred centre in Jewish heritage and later as a Chrstian holy city.
By the seventh century, the defining landmarks of the Christian holy city included numerous churches, sanctuaries, and monastic establishments that graced the western part of the walled city. Foremost among these structures was the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, a monumental edifice that dominated the western portion of the city.
The eastern sector of Jerusalem, historically associated with Judaism, witnessed complete destruction and abandonment upon the arrival of the Muslim army. This region originally encompassed a substantial esplanade attributed to Herod the Great, presumably constructed in support of the Second Jewish Temple. The demise of the Second Jewish Temple at the hands of the Roman army in 70 CE initiated a transformative period during the second century when it was repurposed as a pagan sanctuary, potentially facing destruction in the wake of ascending Christian influence.
This esplanade later became the site of the al-Aqsa Mosque (al-Qibli) and the Dome of the Rock. Early Islamic sources attribute the building of a modest congregational mosque, alongside the southern wall of the precinct, to the caliph Umar b. al-Khattab soon after the conquest of the city in 638. Some traditions also attribute to Umar the uncovering of the Rock, which was hidden under debris. Umar’s mosque was said to be renovated by Mu’awiya b. Abi Sufyan, the governor of Syria-Palestine (640s) and first Umayyad caliph (r. 661-80).
Mu’awiya’s building activities at the site are documented in various non-Muslim historical accounts. Contemporary records provide a detailed account of Mu’awiya’s comprehensive efforts in renovating the walls and clearing the grounds of the site, a project that took place between 658 and 660. These extensive preparations served as the backdrop for the official ceremony held at the site in July 660, symbolising his formal recognition as the caliph. One of the most notable records from this period is the account of the Christian pilgrim Arculf, who visited the area around 680:
“In that renowned place where once the Temple had been magnificently constructed the Saracens now frequent a quadrangular house of prayer, which they have built rudely, constructing it by setting planks and great beams on some remains of ruins: this house can, it is said, hold three thousand men at once.”
While certain scholars attribute Mu’awiya’s mosque as being situated directly beneath the present-day al-Aqsa Mosque, others in the field suggest that the mosque traditionally associated with Mu’awiya is, in reality, the building now identified as al-Masjid al-Qadim. This site is more commonly recognised as Solomon’s Stables or the Marwani Musalla.
Examining the early Islamic history of the sanctuary, it becomes evident that the initial construction activities within the Haram were primarily directed towards the establishment of a congregational mosque. It was not until the reign of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan that the ambitious project of installing a dome over the sacred rock was initiated. This undertaking was ultimately accomplished during the tenure of his son and successor, al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik (al-Walid I). Abd al-Malik’s decision to construct an unprecedented monumental Islamic building at the revered site in the Holy City suggests a purpose(s) that goes beyond religious reasons.
The strategic placement of the dome upon the remnants of the Herodian temple, coupled with its physical dominance within the urban fabric of the Christian holy city, conveys a profound statement. It symbolises the ascendancy of Islam and its triumph over the two preeminent monotheistic influences that previously held sway over Jerusalem, thus underlining a new religious identity for the city. Furthermore, it becomes apparent that the Umayyad dynasty, based in the Levant, actively cultivated and sought to establish a significant and personal connection to the region. They achieved this through their physical presence, extensive building projects, honorific titles, and the crafting of a compelling legend surrounding their dynasty. Mu’awiya’s ceremonial oath as the caliph in Jerusalem and Abd al-Malik’s role as his father’s deputy in the city, alongside some accounts indicating that Abd al-Malik himself may have taken the oath of caliphate there (though this is subject to uncertainty), all serve to emphasise the family’s deep-rooted link to the city of Jerusalem. Mu’awiya’s recognition as the “Prince of the Holy Land” further underscores their prominence in the region.
The connection between the Marwanid Umayyad Caliphs and the sanctuary remained conspicuous even centuries later as it became closely intertwined with their names. A tradition recorded by al-Wasiti (1019–1020 CE) recounted a prophecy that specifically tied ‘Abd al-Malik to a divine directive to build the Dome of the Rock. This account serves as compelling evidence of the Umayyads’ intentions to foster a symbolic connection with the Holy City.
The Umayyad dynasty’s historical ties to the Levant and Jerusalem were later utilised to their detriment by their Abbasid rivals. These Abbasid successors propagated a theory suggesting that the Umayyads had aspirations to relocate the Hajj pilgrimage from the Hijaz region to Jerusalem. This theory gained prominence among early scholars in the field of Islamic art, as they endeavoured to draw a direct parallel between the circular architectural design of the Dome of the Rock and the circumambulations performed around the Ka’aba.
These scholars anchored their theories in the historical accounts of al-Ya’qubi (d. 874) and the Melkite priest Eutychius (d. 940). In their interpretations, they portrayed the Dome of the Rock as a potential alternative or rival to the Ka’aba in Mecca. This interpretation was framed within the broader historical context of political and religious conflicts, particularly the challenge posed to Umayyad authority by Ibn al-Zubayr, who had established a competing caliphate in Mecca and led a revolt against Abd al-Malik, the Umayyad ruler of the time.
This circular layout, a unique departure from typical early Islamic architecture, draws inspiration from the architectural traditions of late antique Christian Martyria buildings. Such sanctuaries were prevalent in Jerusalem and the wider Levant region. In this regard, one notable example, which may have directly influenced the design of the Dome of the Rock, is the sanctuary of the Anastasis, located a mere 550 metres from the Umayyad compound and other churches in Palestine such as the Church of the Kathisma. This particular sanctuary holds immense significance in the Christian faith, as it is believed to be the site of Christ’s crucifixion, burial, and resurrection, making it one of the holiest places in the Christian world.
The conscious adoption of this architectural model, with its unmistakable reference to the nearby Church of the Holy Sepulchre, serves as a potent political statement of authority and power. This choice reflects the Muslim conquerors’ position as victorious rulers who could assert their authority by adopting and repurposing this architectural plan for their own religious and political purposes. This claim is supported by the writings of the Jerusalemite historian al-Muqaddasi (also known as al-Maqdisi) in the tenth century. According to al-Muqaddasi, Abd al-Malik undertook the construction of the Dome of the Rock after noting the magnificence of the Dome of the Anastasis at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. He further noted that the creation of the al-Aqsa Mosque was intended to rival the magnificence of the nearby Holy Sepulchre.
In the broader political context of the period, Abd al-Malik ascended to power in 684, a time marked by the presence of a looming Byzantine army at the Islamic empire’s borders. During this time, the Byzantines were able to retake parts of northern Syria, marking a significant development in the history of the Islamic empire. In the city of Jerusalem, which had a predominantly Christian population, these political developments likely intensified the psychological and ideological tensions between Christianity and Islam.
Under such circumstances, Abd al-Malik might have felt compelled to establish a highly conspicuous symbol of his authority and control over the city. The decision to construct a monumental structure on a highly visible place in the city can be understood in this context. This structure, the Dome of the Rock, served as a visible and powerful reminder of his hegemony over Jerusalem. It was a deliberate statement of Islamic presence and dominance in a city with a significant Christian majority, in the face of both Byzantine military threats and the ongoing interplay between these two major religious traditions.
The Dome of the Rock’s inscription system encapsulates this profound religio-political message. Composed in golden angular Kufic script, these inscriptions are found on the outer and inner octagonal arcades. They consist of carefully selected Quranic passages related to the figure of Christ. Spanning a length of 240 metres, the inscriptions begin with the bismillah and the shahada, followed by Quranic verses and a foundation inscription.
The chosen Quranic passages dealing with Jesus’s role in Islam prominently feature Surat al-Ikhlas (Quran 112) and Surat al-Isra (Quran 17:111), emphasising the Islamic belief that God has no offspring and no associates, affirming that Jesus (peace be upon him) is a prophet and not divine. Subsequently, the inscriptions include two quotes from Surat An-Nisa (Quran 4:171-172), urging the People of the Book (Christians and Jews) to forsake their altered scriptures in favour of the final and comprehensive revelation. In essence, these inscriptions serve as a tangible representation of the Umayyad dynasty’s assertion of power and supremacy in the city of Jesus. By featuring these specific Quranic passages within the Dome of the Rock, the Umayyads convey their theological stance and underscore their authority in a city of immense religious significance to both Christians and Muslims. This monumental structure serves as a compelling statement of the Umayyads’ influence and religious doctrine in a city with profound religious and historical resonance.
Decorative Scheme
The Dome of the Rock holds a unique place in history as not only the earliest surviving Islamic monument but also as the first in this emerging art tradition to feature an intricate decorative scheme. This decorative scheme is a product of its time, drawing upon and reinterpreting the existing Byzantine and, to a lesser degree Sassanian, traditions, to create the earliest form of visual expression within the Islamic artistic tradition. The decorative scheme of the Dome of the Rock can be characterised as a blend of continuity and change. It draws upon late antique traditions, utilising a visual language that would have been familiar to the people of that era, to convey a message and assert power. Simultaneously, it embarks on a trajectory of innovation and differentiation, distancing itself from these traditions in the process.
The mosaics in the Umayyad compound originally featured opulent golden designs and marbles both on the interior and exterior of the building. These decorative elements included intricate vegetal patterns, some of which were rendered in a realistic fashion while others were stylised. The designs were further embellished with depictions of jewels, crowns, breastplates, and wings, drawing clear parallels with the symbols of royal authority in the Byzantine and Sassanian empires.
The deliberate incorporation of these royal attributes associated with the Byzantines and Sassanians, both of whom were major powers defeated by Islam, serves as a vivid representation of Umayyad power. It can be interpreted as a symbolic ‘spoil of war’, a tribute that commemorates the triumph of Muslims over these two formidable and ancient civilizations. This artistic and symbolic choice underlines the Umayyad dynasty’s authority and dominance in the wake of these victories and their appropriation of these prominent visual elements to convey their own power and legacy.
A conspicuous departure from the Byzantine artistic tradition is evident in the aniconic trend incorporated into the decorative scheme of the Dome of the Rock. This trend entails a deliberate departure from figural representation in favour of a combination of vegetal ornamentation. The artistic choice can be comprehended within the context of two key considerations: the Islamic proscription against the portrayal of living beings in religious contexts and a strategic attempt to cultivate a unique visual aesthetic distinct from that of their Byzantine counterparts.
The afterlife of the Dome of the Rock
Over the course of its history, narratives associated with the Dome of the Rock have given rise to layers of historical significance and evolving associations, particularly in the post-Crusade era. While Jerusalem was under Crusader rule, pietistic circles in Syria promoted the idea of jihad to free the Holy Land. Leaders like Nur al-Din ibn Zengi and Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi embraced this ideology and led a successful campaign to reclaim the Holy Land from the Crusaders. During this time, texts praising Jerusalem were compiled, emphasising the significance of the Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock. This played a key role in motivating Muslim warriors and firmly establishing the religious traditions associated with these iconic structures.
Perhaps more than Abd al-Malik, it is Salah al-Din who is most associated with the sanctuary throughout its early modern and modern history. The nexus between the local inhabitants of Jerusalem and its sacred esplanade was consolidated around a commitment to defend the sanctity of the holy compound. This commitment can be traced back to the Ayyubid period and has facilitated the creation of local sentiment and identity centred on protecting the Haram from foreign threats, initially, the Crusaders and, later, Zionism. Until the twentieth century, this vigilance was primarily grounded in religious obligation. However, with the emergence of Palestinian nationalist movements, this commitment transformed into a nationalistic allegiance, becoming the core of the Palestinian identity and the nation’s body politic.
The Dome of the Rock today
Buildings, architecture and even entire cities can symbolise enclosed socio-political systems, effectively representing a body politic. They effectively shape, influence, and construct the socio-political structure. This concept is particularly evident in the case of al-Aqsa, which continues to serve as the core of Palestinian nationalism and, in essence, defines the nation itself which to this day remains united around the protection of its sanctuary.
The early 1900s witnessed the emergence of Palestinian national movements and the need to unite the nation around symbols that would resonate with various segments of the population. These efforts found an expression in Jerusalem’s historical city and its holy sites, but it was only one monument that emerged as the ultimate expression of the body politic: the al-Aqsa mosque.
The al-Aqsa Compound stands as an unequivocal representation of the Palestinian body politic, and its significance goes far beyond its symbolic use by Palestinian national movements, rhetoric, emblems, art and poetry. What truly distinguishes it is the imminent existential threat it confronts from an external ethno-political entity, namely Zionism, which asserts religious authority over the compound. This specific threat, though singular, encapsulates and mirrors the broader threat to the heart of Palestinian identity, Palestinian territory, and the Palestinian people.
The 1929 Wailing Wall Disturbances mark the first major events in which Zionist ambitions were combated vis-à-vis al-Aqsa. The deadly events revolved around the entirety of the compound and the exclusive religious rights over the Wailing Wall (al-Buraq), the western outer wall of the compound. The disturbances were immediately translated into a nationalistic cause and were perceived as threatening the Palestinian Arab and Muslim identities. The national framing of the disturbances was promoted by local political figures, including the grand mufti of Jerusalem, Hajj Amin al-Husayni. This national framing altered the emphasis from a religious one to a nationalistic one, appealing to both Muslims and Christian Palestinians. This was clearly expressed in the Christian Palestinian press, which emphasised the need to defend Muslim sacred spaces, particularly the Haram, as they form a central part of the shared national heritage of all Palestinian Arabs.
The nationwide strikes, protests, conferences, and press coverage which followed the disturbances, situated the safety and integrity of the Haram beyond the compound’s physical boundaries, provoking the nation as a whole. Furthermore, the nationwide interest can also be perceived as part of the existential threat to the entirety of Palestine in the face of increasing Zionist presence. Essentially, this dynamic created an analogy between the site, the nation as a territory, and the bodies occupying it.
This unwavering connection is perhaps best illustrated in the events of September 2000, specifically the entry of Israel’s opposition leader, Ariel Sharon, into the al-Aqsa compound to assert Israeli sovereignty over the sacred site and occupied East Jerusalem. This visit triggered the second Palestinian Intifada (upspring), al-Aqsa Intifada. The Intifada was characterised by the rallying cry of “bil’rooh, bil’daam nafdeek ya Aqsa” (We will sacrifice our souls, our blood, for al-Aqsa), which reasserted the unbreakable (blood) bond between the Palestinian people and the Compound.
Similar to the events of 1929, the presence of a foreign body with an ‘equal’ claim to the site provoked nationwide rage and reasserted the willingness of the Palestinian people to give their individual bodies and souls for the sake of the body politic.
In the present day, the intricate relationship between the al-Aqsa Compound and the Palestinian people is more apparent and vital than ever. As al-Aqsa confronts constant threats from settlers, backed by the political leadership of the occupation, who encroach upon the sanctuary situated in the internationally recognised occupied territory in East Jerusalem, it serves as a provocative and infuriating reminder to Palestinians. These actions not only provoke the Palestinian populace but also fuel a deep sense of anger and injustice.
The sanctity of al-Aqsa transcends religious boundaries and takes on a broader significance in the context of Palestinian identity and collective memory. The repeated violations of this sacred space intensify the connection between al-Aqsa and the Palestinian people, underlining the indivisibility of the bond that binds them, and reinforcing the resilience of this enduring connection. This mutual connection highlights a lasting determination to safeguard their heritage, preserve their identity, and embrace their shared destiny.
Bibliography
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Necipoğlu, Gülru. “The Dome of the Rock as palimpsest: ʿAbd al-Malik’s grand narrative and Sultan Süleyman’s glosses.” In Muqarnas 25 (2008): 17-105.
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